Question
QUESTION TWO (20 MARKS) a) Explain the process of classical conditioning using Pavlov's experiment with dogs (10mks) b) Describe how operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning (10mks) QUESTION THREE (20 MARKS) (10mks) a. Explain two major theories of personality b. Using relevant examples.describe techniques of improving memory (10mks) QUESTION FOUR (20 MARKS) a. Using relevant examples.discuss any three stages of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory of cognitive development (10mks) b. Describe the two types of motivation based on their source. In each type, state examples. (10mks) QUESTION FIVE (20 MARKS) (12mks) a. Describe three perspectives explaining how attitudes are formed b. By use of appropriate examples discuss any two reinforcement schedules in operant conditioning (8mks)
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Zoey
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**QUESTION TWO (20 MARKS)****a) Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Experiment:**Pavlov's experiment demonstrated how a neutral stimulus can elicit a reflexive response through association. He observed that dogs naturally salivate (unconditioned response - UCR) when presented with food (unconditioned stimulus - UCS). Pavlov then introduced a neutral stimulus, a bell, which initially did not cause salivation. He repeatedly paired the bell (neutral stimulus, later conditioned stimulus - CS) with the food (UCS). Over time, the dogs began to salivate (conditioned response - CR) at the sound of the bell alone, even without the presence of food. This demonstrated that the dogs had learned to associate the bell with food, and the bell had become a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response.**b) Operant vs. Classical Conditioning:**Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in the way learning occurs. Classical conditioning involves associating two stimuli (UCS and CS), where the CS elicits an involuntary, reflexive response. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, involves associating a behavior with its consequences. Behaviors followed by desirable consequences (reinforcement) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by undesirable consequences (punishment) are less likely to be repeated. In essence, classical conditioning focuses on involuntary responses, while operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors and their consequences.**QUESTION THREE (20 MARKS)****a) Two Major Theories of Personality:*** **Psychodynamic Theory (e.g., Freud):** This theory emphasizes the role of unconscious drives and early childhood experiences in shaping personality. It posits that personality is composed of the id (primitive drives), ego (reality principle), and superego (moral conscience). Conflicts between these structures can lead to psychological distress.* **Trait Theory (e.g., Big Five):** This theory focuses on identifying and measuring stable personality traits that describe individual differences. The Big Five personality traits are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN). These traits are believed to be relatively consistent across situations and time.**b) Techniques for Improving Memory:*** **Chunking:** Grouping information into smaller, manageable units (chunks) can improve memory capacity. For example, remembering a phone number as three chunks (area code, prefix, line number) is easier than remembering ten individual digits.* **Elaborative Rehearsal:** Connecting new information to existing knowledge and personal experiences makes it more meaningful and memorable. For example, relating a historical event to a personal anecdote can enhance its retention.**QUESTION FOUR (20 MARKS)****a) Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:*** **Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years):** Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor actions. They develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. Example: A baby shaking a rattle to hear the sound.* **Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):** Children develop symbolic thinking, using words and images to represent objects and ideas. However, their thinking is egocentric, meaning they struggle to see things from another's perspective. Example: A child engaging in pretend play, using a banana as a phone.* **Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):** Children develop logical reasoning abilities but are limited to concrete objects and events. They understand conservation, the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. Example: A child understanding that pouring water from a tall, thin glass to a short, wide glass does not change the amount of water.**b) Two Types of Motivation:*** **Intrinsic Motivation:** Driven by internal factors such as curiosity, enjoyment, and a sense of accomplishment. Example: Playing a musical instrument for personal satisfaction.* **Extrinsic Motivation:** Driven by external factors such as rewards, punishments, and social pressure. Example: Studying for a test to get a good grade.**QUESTION FIVE (20 MARKS)****a) Three Perspectives on Attitude Formation:*** **Cognitive Perspective:** Attitudes are formed based on beliefs and evaluations about an object or issue. People weigh the pros and cons of an issue to form an attitude.* **Affective Perspective:** Attitudes are formed based on emotional reactions and feelings towards an object or issue. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning can influence attitude formation through positive and negative associations.* **Behavioral Perspective:** Attitudes are formed based on observations of one's own behavior. People infer their attitudes from their actions, especially when their initial attitudes are weak or ambiguous.**b) Two Reinforcement Schedules in Operant Conditioning:*** **Fixed-Ratio Schedule:** Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. Example: A factory worker receiving a bonus for every 100 units produced. This leads to a high rate of responding with short pauses after reinforcement.* **Variable-Ratio Schedule:** Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses, around an average. Example: Slot machines paying out after an unpredictable number of pulls. This leads to a high and steady rate of responding, resistant to extinction.