Distinguish between the terms theory, law.and fact and hypothesis. Contrast the two forms of reasoning (thinking)in science; inductive and deductive. Distinguish between observations and infer ences. Compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative observations. Analyze pictures by making qualitative and quantitative observations and inferences. a Suggest if something known is based on scientific reasoning or another "way of knowing". Evaluate if a reported idea or claim is good science, poor science or pseudoscience. 1 Identify cause and effect relationships. Identify correlational relationships. Distinguish between examples of correlation and causation with justification. Identify examples of causal illusion. Discuss how causal illusions can result from misinterpreting correlations. Compare and contrast the characteristics of good science versus poor science Analyze factors that influence people to accept pseudoscience claims. Define pseudoscience Describe possible consequences that may result from making decisions based on poor science Design and evaluate science investigations. Identify the h ypothesis, test, prediction and conclusion in an experiment. D Explain and be able to identify examples of confirmation bias. Describe ways that bias is reduced during testing in science.

Let's break down these scientific thinking concepts step by step.<br /><br />**1. Theory, Law, Fact, and Hypothesis:**<br /><br />* **Fact:** A verifiable observation about the natural world. For example, "water boils at 100°C at sea level" is a fact.<br />* **Hypothesis:** A testable proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a set of observations. It's a tentative statement that can be supported or refuted through experimentation. For example, "If I add salt to water, it will boil at a higher temperature" is a hypothesis.<br />* **Theory:** A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses. Theories are broad in scope and supported by a large body of evidence. For example, the "Theory of Evolution" explains the diversity of life on Earth.<br />* **Law:** A descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances. Laws often describe relationships that can be expressed mathematically. For example, Newton's "Law of Universal Gravitation" describes the attraction between objects with mass.<br /><br />**2. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning:**<br /><br />* **Inductive Reasoning:** Moves from specific observations to a general conclusion. You observe a pattern and then form a hypothesis. For example, "Every swan I have ever seen is white, therefore all swans are white" (this is a flawed example, as black swans exist, highlighting the limitations of inductive reasoning).<br />* **Deductive Reasoning:** Moves from a general principle to a specific prediction. You start with a hypothesis and then test it with observations. For example, "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."<br /><br />**3. Observations and Inferences:**<br /><br />* **Observations:** Information gathered directly through the senses. They can be qualitative or quantitative.<br />* **Inferences:** Logical interpretations or explanations based on observations and prior knowledge.<br /><br />**4. Qualitative and Quantitative Observations:**<br /><br />* **Qualitative Observations:** Describe qualities using words. Examples: color, texture, smell, shape.<br />* **Quantitative Observations:** Describe quantities using numbers and units. Examples: length, mass, temperature, volume.<br /><br />**5. Analyzing Pictures:**<br /><br />Analyzing pictures involves both observation (what you directly see) and inference (what you conclude based on what you see). Qualitative observations might include the colors in the picture, the shapes of objects, and the textures apparent. Quantitative observations might include the number of objects, the height of a person relative to a building, or the estimated area of a particular feature. Inferences would be conclusions drawn from these observations, such as "it appears to be raining" based on the presence of umbrellas.<br /><br />**6. Scientific Reasoning vs. Other Ways of Knowing:**<br /><br />Scientific reasoning relies on evidence, testability, and logical reasoning. Other ways of knowing might include intuition, personal beliefs, religious faith, or authority figures. Something is based on scientific reasoning if it can be tested and potentially falsified.<br /><br />**7. Good Science, Poor Science, and Pseudoscience:**<br /><br />* **Good Science:** Follows the scientific method, is peer-reviewed, is transparent, and is open to scrutiny.<br />* **Poor Science:** Contains flaws in methodology, data collection, or interpretation, but isn't intentionally misleading.<br />* **Pseudoscience:** Presents claims that appear scientific but lack evidence and rigorous testing. It often relies on anecdotal evidence, confirmation bias, and avoids peer review.<br /><br />**8. Cause and Effect vs. Correlation:**<br /><br />* **Cause and Effect:** A change in one variable directly causes a change in another. Example: Heating water (cause) makes it boil (effect).<br />* **Correlation:** A relationship between two variables, but one doesn't necessarily cause the other. They might both be influenced by a third, unseen variable. Example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates are correlated (both increase in the summer), but one doesn't cause the other. The third variable is warm weather.<br /><br />**9. Causal Illusions:**<br /><br />Causal illusions arise when we perceive a causal link between two events that are only correlated or coincidentally related. Misinterpreting correlations as causation is a common source of causal illusions.<br /><br />**10. Characteristics of Good Science vs. Poor Science:**<br /><br />* **Good Science:** Objective, unbiased, reproducible, verifiable, based on evidence, peer-reviewed, open to scrutiny.<br />* **Poor Science:** Subjective, biased, poorly designed experiments, lack of controls, cherry-picked data, avoids peer review.<br /><br />**11. Factors Influencing Acceptance of Pseudoscience:**<br /><br />Cognitive biases (confirmation bias, wishful thinking), emotional needs, lack of scientific literacy, social and cultural influences.<br /><br />**12. Consequences of Decisions Based on Poor Science:**<br /><br />Misinformed decisions can have negative consequences in areas like health, environmental policy, and personal finance.<br /><br />**13. Designing and Evaluating Science Investigations:**<br /><br />A good investigation includes a clear hypothesis, a well-defined methodology, appropriate controls, careful data collection, and rigorous analysis.<br /><br />**14. Hypothesis, Test, Prediction, and Conclusion:**<br /><br />* **Hypothesis:** A testable explanation.<br />* **Test (Experiment):** A procedure designed to test the hypothesis.<br />* **Prediction:** A specific statement about what will happen in the experiment if the hypothesis is true.<br />* **Conclusion:** A statement summarizing the results of the experiment and whether they support or refute the hypothesis.<br /><br />**15. Confirmation Bias:**<br /><br />The tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.<br /><br />**16. Reducing Bias in Science:**<br /><br />Blinding (single-blind or double-blind studies), peer review, replication of studies, randomized controlled trials, transparent reporting of methods and data.<br />